Lunenburg, Fred C. Organizational Structure Mintzberg Framework Free Essays

Universal JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY VOLUME 14, NUMBER 1, 2011 Organizational Structure: Mintzberg’s Framework Fred C. Lunenburg Sam Houston State University Conceptual Henry Mintzberg recommends that associations can be separated along three fundamental measurements: (1) the key piece of the association, that is, the piece of the association that assumes the significant job in deciding its prosperity or disappointment; (2) the prime planning instrument, that is, the significant technique the association uses to arrange its exercises; and (3) the sort of decentralization utilized, that is, the degree to which the association includes subordinates in the dynamic procedure. Utilizing the three fundamental measurements â€key part of the association, prime planning component, and sort of decentralizationâ€Mintzberg proposes that the system an association embraces and the degree to which it rehearses that methodology bring about five auxiliary arrangements: straightforward structure, machine organization, proficient administration, divisionalized structure, and adhocracy. We will compose a custom article test on Lunenburg, Fred C. Authoritative Structure Mintzberg Framework or on the other hand any comparable subject just for you Request Now Associations exist to accomplish objectives. These objectives are separated into undertakings as the reason for occupations. Employments are gathered into offices. Divisions in associations might be portrayed by showcasing, deals, publicizing, producing, etc. Inside every division, significantly more qualifications can be secured between the positions individuals perform. Offices are connected to frame the hierarchical structure. The organization’s structure gives it the structure to satisfy its capacity in the earth (Nelson Quick, 2011). The term authoritative structure alludes to the conventional design among people and gatherings in regards to the distribution of undertakings, obligations, and authority inside the association (Galbraith, 1987; Greenberg, 2011) Very early hierarchical structures were regularly founded either on item or capacity (Oliveira Takahashi, 2012). The grid association structure crossed these two different ways of sorting out (Galbraith, 2009; Kuprenas, 2003). Others moved past these early methodologies and analyzed the connection between hierarchical methodology and structure (Brickley, Smith, Zimmerman, Willett, 2002). This methodology started with the milestone work of Alfred Chandler (1962, 2003), who followed the recorded improvement of such huge American partnerships as DuPont, Sears, and General Motors. He finished up from his examination that an organization’s technique will in general impact its structure. He recommends that technique by implication decides such factors as the organization’s undertakings, innovation, and situations, and every one of these impacts the structure of the association. All the more as of late, social researchers have expanded Chandler’s postulation by battling that an organization’s procedure decides its condition, innovation, and errands. These factors, combined with development rates and force appropriation, influence hierarchical 1 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY 2_____________________________________________________________________________________ tructure (Hall Tolbert, 2009; Miles, Snow, Meyer, Coleman, 2011). Henry Mintzberg (1992, 2009) proposes that associations can be separated along three fundamental measurements: (1) the key piece of the association, that is, the piece of the association that assumes the significant job in deciding its prosperity or disappointment; (2) the prime planning s ystem, that is, the significant technique the association uses to arrange its exercises; and (3) the kind of decentralization utilized, that is, the degree to which the association includes subordinates in the dynamic procedure. The key pieces of an association are appeared in Figure 1 and incorporate the accompanying. Vital Apex Technostructure Middle Line Support Staff Operative Core Figure 1. The key pieces of an association. ? ? ? ? The vital peak is top administration and its care staff. In school locale, this is the administrator of schools and the authoritative bureau. The usable center are the laborers who really complete the organization’s undertakings. Educators establish the usable center in school locale. The center line is center and lower-level administration. Principals are the middlelevel directors in school areas. The technostructure are examiners, for example, engineers, bookkeepers, organizers, scientists, and work force administrators. In school regions, divisions, for example, guidance, business, work force, advertising, innovative work, and such establish the technostructure. The care staff are the individuals who offer circuitous types of assistance. In school locale, comparable administrations incorporate upkeep, administrative, food administration, transporting, legitimate guidance, and counseling to offer help. ? The subsequent fundamental component of an association is its prime planning instrument. This incorporates the accompanying: FRED C. LUNENBURG _____________________________________________________________________________________3 ? ? ? ? ? Direct management implies that one individual is capable of crafted by others. This idea alludes to the solidarity of order and scalar standards. Normalization of work process exists when the substance of work is determined or customized. In school areas, this alludes to sets of expectations that oversee the work execution of instructors. Normalization of abilities exists when the sort of preparing important to accomplish the work is determined. In educational systems, this alludes to state declarations required for the different ccupants of a school district’s progression. Normalization of yield exists when the aftereffects of the work are determined. Since the â€Å"raw material† that is prepared by the employable center (instructors) comprises of individuals (understudies), not things, normalization of yield is more hard to gauge in schools than in other nonserv ice associations. All things considered, a development toward the normalization of yield in schools as of late has happened. Models incorporate competency testing of instructors, state-ordered testing of understudies, state-commanded educational plans, prescriptive learning goals, and different endeavors toward enacted learning. Common modification exists when work is composed through casual correspondence. Shared alteration or coordination is the significant pushed of Likert’s (1987) â€Å"linking-pin† idea. The third essential element of an association is the kind of decentralization it utilizes. The three sorts of decentralization are the accompanying: ? ? ? Vertical decentralization is the dissemination of shut down the levels of leadership, or shared authority among superordinates and subordinates in any association. Level decentralization is the degree to which non overseers (counting staff) decide, or shared authority among line and staff. Particular decentralization is the degree to which dynamic force is assigned to various units inside the association. In school locale, these units may incorporate guidance, business, work force, advertising, and innovative work divisions. Utilizing the three fundamental dimensionsâ€key part of the association, prime planning system, and kind of decentralizationâ€Mintzberg proposes that the technique an association receives and the degree to which it rehearses that procedure bring about five auxiliary arrangements: basic structure, machine administration, proficient organization, divisionalized structure, and adhocracy. Table 1 sums up the three essential measurements related with every one of the five auxiliary setups. Each hierarchical structure is talked about thusly. Universal JOURNAL OF SCHOLARLY, ACADEMIC, INTELLECTUAL DIVERSITY 4_____________________________________________________________________________________ Table 1. Mintzberg’s Five Organizational Structures Auxiliary Configuration Simple structure Machine administration Professional organization Divisionalized structure Adhocracy Prime Coordinating Mechanism Direct oversight Standardization of work forms Standardization of abilities Standardization of yields Mutual change Key Part of Organization Strategic summit Technostructure Operating center Middle line Support staff Type of Decentralization Vertical and level centralization Limited even decentralization Vertical and flat decentralization Limited vertical decentralization Selective decentralization Basic Structure The basic structure has as its key part the key pinnacle, utilizes direct oversight, and utilizes vertical and level centralization. Instances of basic structures are moderately little enterprises, new government offices, medium-sized retail locations, and little primary school regions. The association comprises of the top administrator and a couple of laborers in the usable center. There is no technostructure, and the care staff is little; laborers perform covering errands. For instance, instructors and executives in little grade school areas must accept a large number of the obligations that the technostructure and care staff act in bigger regions. As often as possible, in any case, little grade school locale are individuals from cooperatives that offer numerous types of assistance (I. e. , advisors, social specialists) to various little school areas in a single locale of the region or state. In little school regions, the administrator may work as both director of the locale and head of a solitary school. Administrators in such school regions must be business visionaries. Since the association is little, coordination is casual and kept up through direct oversight. In addition, this association can adjust to natural changes quickly. Objectives stress development and long haul endurance, in spite of the fact that advancement might be troublesome

Partition after Civil Wars Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Parcel after Civil Wars - Research Paper Example The subsequent settlements of the issue after the ridiculous common wars can regularly result into further slaughter. Breakout of the State because of the ethnic issues in this manner can set various ethnicities against one another and aggravate the general investigation in view of the straightforwardness with which strategies like ethnic purging can be adjusted. What is additionally huge to comprehend that creator has fundamentally contended that so as to keep away from ethnic common wars, it is significant that segment ought to be considered as one of the feasible strategy elective. This contention depends on the suspicions that the ethnic clashes have practically comparable elements therefore making it hard to return the multi-ethnic state in same state as before the war. Autonomous and Dependent Variables A closer examination of the article would recommend that writer has endeavored to make interface between the ethnic clashes and common wars with the parcel. As such the needy va riable is the segment of the land zones while the accomplishment of harmony and absence of contention because of the ethnic clash as an autonomous variable. ... Contextual analyses are regularly founded on an inside and out examination of specific occasions, gatherings or people and as such can give an extensive outline of subjects under audit. Creator has given complete subtleties of the distinctive ethnic clashes which occurred and the consequences of their settlement. Creator has additionally utilized study of the current writing to introduce a hypothetical investigation of the general setting of the ethnic clashes and their answers. Review of existing writing additionally offers a legitimate hypothetical stage dependent on which writer can really manufacture the hypothetical establishments for the exploration embraced. By refering to different models from history creator has really been fruitful in giving a far reaching diagram of how the distinctive arranging settlements flopped due to non-segment based answers for the issue of ethnic clashes. End This article is exhaustive as in it has offered a far reaching outline of the authentic re cords of the distinctive moral and social clashes. The general hypothetical establishments are set to examine different methodologies sent to determine the multi-ethnic clashes and how they neglected to accomplish the ideal outcomes. Creator has adjusted contextual investigation approach under which a diagram of the various clashes and their settlements. The general finish of the article is that the parcel can be one of the achievable arrangement choices to unravel the ethnic clashes and maintain a strategic distance from common wars. Is it true that you are persuaded? Why? Despite the fact that segment can be one of the key arrangement options in any case, to get a general adequacy of the equivalent may stay one of the key difficulties to such approach options. In the event that, for example, Palestine and Israel where a different State has been made for

Study for Exams Using Active Recall

Study for Exams Using Active Recall EP 40: Study for Exams Using Active Recall EP 40: Study for Exams Using Active Recall Active learning is just as it sounds. In order to truly learn a new piece of information, you need to somehow trick your brain into working on it, activating new neural pathways that make it easy to access when needed. This will involve solving problems from scratch using the information you do have. But what if you dont know where to start without looking at notes, slides, or answers? This week on Episode 40 we talk about about a way to do active recall when you have no idea where to begin. Looking for study tips, help with essay writing, or advice on how to be a better student? Welcome to The Homework Help Show, a weekly show where we teach, assist, and offer valuable insights for student life. From study hacks to writing tips, discussions about student mental health to step-by-step guides on academic writing and how to write a resume, weve got you covered. Want your questions answered? Write them below or join the conversation on social media using the hashtag #askHHG TRANSCRIPT: Cath Anne: [00:00:00] Hi guys and welcome back to our channel. My name is Cath Anne and this is episode 40 of the Homework Help Show hosted by Homework Help Global. [00:00:17] I am sure I dont have to remind you that exams are coming up. [00:00:22] Have you ever been in a situation where youve studied really hard, youve been diligent all semester, youve attended every class and youve even pulled all nighters to make sure that you get the right information for your test the next day and then once you get to the test you draw a blank and you have no idea what the professor is looking for. Super frustrating right? Youve come all this way youve done all this work. But for what? And youve studied so you would think that you could do well in the exam. It just doesnt make sense. Well this is what we are going to talk about today. [00:00:57] If you are experiencing this I hate to break this to you but you havent actually learned the material in the first place. [00:01:06] OK, I know youre probably yelling at the screen or saying What?! What are you talking about? I know. I know. It sounds really difficult to hear especially if you study for long hours. You would think you would have learned something but just hear me out. [00:01:24] Let me ask you a few questions. Do you attend class regularly and listen to your professors thoughtful logical explanation of the content and think oh yeah, this makes sense? Do you attend class regularly and review your notes? Do you do practice questions in your textbook with the open book by your side and the answers right by your side thinking that youre doing the best to practice what you can and prepare for an exam? Youre not alone. These are strategies that we have been taught to implement into our study routines. However they are not always the most effective. Unfortunately the reason for this is because all of these activities are passive. So in other words, you are intaking information but youre not actually grappling with it or working with the new material in order to understand it. Although you might recognize similar material and be able to regurgitate it in a specific set of circumstances, youre not going to be able to do much more than that and particularl y if you are working or learning in a field that is has a hands on component youre certainly going to want to be able to apply the material in a variety of contexts. And, this is why listening to lectures and reading through textbooks is not necessarily the most effective. When we see an example of related information, it might lull us into a false sense of security thinking that we do know the answers and that we are able to recall them in different contexts. However, without the diagrams lecture notes or even the classroom itself we might not be able to recall that information effectively. [00:03:14] So that is why today we wanted to discuss the process of active recall and how it can help you to study for exams and be a more effective student active learning is just as it sounds. In order to truly learn a new piece of information you must engage with it and trick your brain into working with it. This activates new neural pathways in the brain which creates new space in the brain for new information. This will involve solving problems from the ground up. You have to work with the information in order for it to become ingrained in your brain and that means working with information without the help of notes slides or lectures or even the answers. So lets talk about how you can incorporate active recall into your study routine. Even when you have no idea where to begin because there might be times that you might see a question and you might not even know where to start. So lets start there and well build upon that. There are a variety of ways that you can incorporate act ive recall into your study routine and Im going to give you a couple of steps about how to do that. [00:04:26] Step one : copy it all down. So youre in class. The T.A./professor/instructor puts a question up on the board record that. Write that down in your notebook. You can also look online to find different questions depending on what discipline you are in. You can also look at old tests you could look in your textbook but just make sure that youre not also looking at the answers because we want to start with a blank slate so your best way to do this is to write everything down. Dont use a computer use a pen and paper or pencil and write everything down. And dont worry at this point if you dont understand this is part of the process. [00:05:08] Step number two: Start small. Start by breaking a problem down and go through step by step. Break down each component of the problem, write out equations, drawing out all of the concepts that you have learned thus for far. You want to look at each variable each part of the equation and eventually piece it all together in a solution. Write out formulas that you have learned and work diligently with the question putting everything you know into the question even if you dont get the correct answer. This is going to be a step towards your learning process and remember that is what were looking for today. Were looking for active engagement with information as opposed to passive reception. You can even begin with easier questions and work your way up to more challenging concept. That is probably your best bet because then you will not get frustrated. Trust me, it is going to be a bit of a frustrating process because you will not necessarily know the answer to every question and it will take some time for this information to become ingrained into your brain. However this is the process and trust this process. [00:06:23] Step number three: do active recall. Once you become familiar with all of the steps involved in solving this type of a problem engage in active recall by taking a new problem and trying to figure it out from the ground up. You can still break it down in steps. Write out all the formulas and everything that you think you need to solve the problem and come to a solution. And again make sure you are not looking at the answer. Also try doing so without the help of any supplementary aides so maybe you have a cheat sheet. Or maybe you have a reference page that you are looking at in order to get some information in regards to the formulas you would need for this active recall process. Make sure that youre kind of setting those things aside until you can wrap your head around the concept and come to somewhat of a solution. If you really do get stuck you can make use of those resources but the less you make use of those resources the better you are going to be able to adapt and t o be able to do this process in a time crunch on an exam. Now this is not just going to be a one time process. This is going to be something that youre not going to want to do throughout the course of a semester when you are studying. Write down questions as they come up and almost create a sample test for yourself. So as youre going through each step in each class in throughout the semester you can be looking at ways to practice as you go along by recording questions and making a sample test for yourself to plan and to study in advance for the exam. So again the key here is to replace passive acceptance of information with active recall. So youre really delving in and engaging with the material even if you arent familiar with that particular question. Work your way through it write it down and take a question on step by step. That is going to be the easiest and most effective way to acquire new learning. [00:08:28] So another way to do active recall is to really hone in on the information that you are learning. Let me explain. Have you ever become frustrated at another student because they seem to have spent a very small time in studying when you have been cramming for weeks and weeks and weeks? Well this is likely because they have honed in on specific information that they believe the professor will be putting on the exam and you may have been studying a bit too broad. So what you want to do when you are studying for an exam is to hone in on very specific information that you think will be on the exam and study that information. You can do this by asking the professor questions about what is going to be on the exam. You can look at key scenes that arise throughout the course of the semester. If there is a topic that the professor keeps going back to it is a good bet that that will be on the exam. You can look through your textbook as I mentioned and look for practice questions bec ause those tend to be the types of information that will arrive on the exam. You can consult with former students of that class and see if they remember anything that may have been on the test in a year before. You can also attend your library and ask if they have any samples of exams and from years past. And this is a really great way to acquire information about the exam and just learn what types of questions will be on a certain type of exam and other idea is to create an online test for yourself to begin to. Test your knowledge using an online application. There are many applications out there that you can make your own tests. And that will be a great way for you to practice the information that you are learning. [00:10:28] Okay so thats it for me this week guys. I hope you have good luck on your exams. Remember to do active recall when you are studying and plan your studying time. Make sure to check out all our other videos on facing your exams. We have a few. I hope this video was of benefit. Let us know if you have any questions in the comments below and if you do make use of active recall wed also love to hear if you have any suggestions for study techniques or suggestions for future episodes. If youre looking to check out any of our other content make sure to jump into the description box below. All of our social media platforms are linked there for you. If you did like this video please give it a thumbs up and subscribe to our channel so you dont miss out on any content. Alright guys I will talk to you next week. Have a great week. Talk soon and take care. Study for Exams Using Active Recall EP 40: Study for Exams Using Active Recall EP 40: Study for Exams Using Active Recall Active learning is just as it sounds. In order to truly learn a new piece of information, you need to somehow trick your brain into working on it, activating new neural pathways that make it easy to access when needed. This will involve solving problems from scratch using the information you do have. But what if you dont know where to start without looking at notes, slides, or answers? This week on Episode 40 we talk about about a way to do active recall when you have no idea where to begin. Looking for study tips, help with essay writing, or advice on how to be a better student? Welcome to The Homework Help Show, a weekly show where we teach, assist, and offer valuable insights for student life. From study hacks to writing tips, discussions about student mental health to step-by-step guides on academic writing and how to write a resume, weve got you covered. Want your questions answered? Write them below or join the conversation on social media using the hashtag #askHHG TRANSCRIPT: Cath Anne: [00:00:00] Hi guys and welcome back to our channel. My name is Cath Anne and this is episode 40 of the Homework Help Show hosted by Homework Help Global. [00:00:17] I am sure I dont have to remind you that exams are coming up. [00:00:22] Have you ever been in a situation where youve studied really hard, youve been diligent all semester, youve attended every class and youve even pulled all nighters to make sure that you get the right information for your test the next day and then once you get to the test you draw a blank and you have no idea what the professor is looking for. Super frustrating right? Youve come all this way youve done all this work. But for what? And youve studied so you would think that you could do well in the exam. It just doesnt make sense. Well this is what we are going to talk about today. [00:00:57] If you are experiencing this I hate to break this to you but you havent actually learned the material in the first place. [00:01:06] OK, I know youre probably yelling at the screen or saying What?! What are you talking about? I know. I know. It sounds really difficult to hear especially if you study for long hours. You would think you would have learned something but just hear me out. [00:01:24] Let me ask you a few questions. Do you attend class regularly and listen to your professors thoughtful logical explanation of the content and think oh yeah, this makes sense? Do you attend class regularly and review your notes? Do you do practice questions in your textbook with the open book by your side and the answers right by your side thinking that youre doing the best to practice what you can and prepare for an exam? Youre not alone. These are strategies that we have been taught to implement into our study routines. However they are not always the most effective. Unfortunately the reason for this is because all of these activities are passive. So in other words, you are intaking information but youre not actually grappling with it or working with the new material in order to understand it. Although you might recognize similar material and be able to regurgitate it in a specific set of circumstances, youre not going to be able to do much more than that and particularl y if you are working or learning in a field that is has a hands on component youre certainly going to want to be able to apply the material in a variety of contexts. And, this is why listening to lectures and reading through textbooks is not necessarily the most effective. When we see an example of related information, it might lull us into a false sense of security thinking that we do know the answers and that we are able to recall them in different contexts. However, without the diagrams lecture notes or even the classroom itself we might not be able to recall that information effectively. [00:03:14] So that is why today we wanted to discuss the process of active recall and how it can help you to study for exams and be a more effective student active learning is just as it sounds. In order to truly learn a new piece of information you must engage with it and trick your brain into working with it. This activates new neural pathways in the brain which creates new space in the brain for new information. This will involve solving problems from the ground up. You have to work with the information in order for it to become ingrained in your brain and that means working with information without the help of notes slides or lectures or even the answers. So lets talk about how you can incorporate active recall into your study routine. Even when you have no idea where to begin because there might be times that you might see a question and you might not even know where to start. So lets start there and well build upon that. There are a variety of ways that you can incorporate act ive recall into your study routine and Im going to give you a couple of steps about how to do that. [00:04:26] Step one : copy it all down. So youre in class. The T.A./professor/instructor puts a question up on the board record that. Write that down in your notebook. You can also look online to find different questions depending on what discipline you are in. You can also look at old tests you could look in your textbook but just make sure that youre not also looking at the answers because we want to start with a blank slate so your best way to do this is to write everything down. Dont use a computer use a pen and paper or pencil and write everything down. And dont worry at this point if you dont understand this is part of the process. [00:05:08] Step number two: Start small. Start by breaking a problem down and go through step by step. Break down each component of the problem, write out equations, drawing out all of the concepts that you have learned thus for far. You want to look at each variable each part of the equation and eventually piece it all together in a solution. Write out formulas that you have learned and work diligently with the question putting everything you know into the question even if you dont get the correct answer. This is going to be a step towards your learning process and remember that is what were looking for today. Were looking for active engagement with information as opposed to passive reception. You can even begin with easier questions and work your way up to more challenging concept. That is probably your best bet because then you will not get frustrated. Trust me, it is going to be a bit of a frustrating process because you will not necessarily know the answer to every question and it will take some time for this information to become ingrained into your brain. However this is the process and trust this process. [00:06:23] Step number three: do active recall. Once you become familiar with all of the steps involved in solving this type of a problem engage in active recall by taking a new problem and trying to figure it out from the ground up. You can still break it down in steps. Write out all the formulas and everything that you think you need to solve the problem and come to a solution. And again make sure you are not looking at the answer. Also try doing so without the help of any supplementary aides so maybe you have a cheat sheet. Or maybe you have a reference page that you are looking at in order to get some information in regards to the formulas you would need for this active recall process. Make sure that youre kind of setting those things aside until you can wrap your head around the concept and come to somewhat of a solution. If you really do get stuck you can make use of those resources but the less you make use of those resources the better you are going to be able to adapt and t o be able to do this process in a time crunch on an exam. Now this is not just going to be a one time process. This is going to be something that youre not going to want to do throughout the course of a semester when you are studying. Write down questions as they come up and almost create a sample test for yourself. So as youre going through each step in each class in throughout the semester you can be looking at ways to practice as you go along by recording questions and making a sample test for yourself to plan and to study in advance for the exam. So again the key here is to replace passive acceptance of information with active recall. So youre really delving in and engaging with the material even if you arent familiar with that particular question. Work your way through it write it down and take a question on step by step. That is going to be the easiest and most effective way to acquire new learning. [00:08:28] So another way to do active recall is to really hone in on the information that you are learning. Let me explain. Have you ever become frustrated at another student because they seem to have spent a very small time in studying when you have been cramming for weeks and weeks and weeks? Well this is likely because they have honed in on specific information that they believe the professor will be putting on the exam and you may have been studying a bit too broad. So what you want to do when you are studying for an exam is to hone in on very specific information that you think will be on the exam and study that information. You can do this by asking the professor questions about what is going to be on the exam. You can look at key scenes that arise throughout the course of the semester. If there is a topic that the professor keeps going back to it is a good bet that that will be on the exam. You can look through your textbook as I mentioned and look for practice questions bec ause those tend to be the types of information that will arrive on the exam. You can consult with former students of that class and see if they remember anything that may have been on the test in a year before. You can also attend your library and ask if they have any samples of exams and from years past. And this is a really great way to acquire information about the exam and just learn what types of questions will be on a certain type of exam and other idea is to create an online test for yourself to begin to. Test your knowledge using an online application. There are many applications out there that you can make your own tests. And that will be a great way for you to practice the information that you are learning. [00:10:28] Okay so thats it for me this week guys. I hope you have good luck on your exams. Remember to do active recall when you are studying and plan your studying time. Make sure to check out all our other videos on facing your exams. We have a few. I hope this video was of benefit. Let us know if you have any questions in the comments below and if you do make use of active recall wed also love to hear if you have any suggestions for study techniques or suggestions for future episodes. If youre looking to check out any of our other content make sure to jump into the description box below. All of our social media platforms are linked there for you. If you did like this video please give it a thumbs up and subscribe to our channel so you dont miss out on any content. Alright guys I will talk to you next week. Have a great week. Talk soon and take care.

The Effect Of Macroeconomic On Stock Return - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 16 Words: 4699 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Economics Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? This research paper is conducted to measure and analyze the effect of macroeconomic on stock return of industrial product sector as compared to performance of Kuala Lumpur Composite Index. Several variables will be used to identify the relationship between the dependant variable which are three pre-specified macroeconomic variables the term structure of recession, interest rate, exchange rate and stock price movement that might give impact to the independent variable which is listed stock of industrial product sectors components in Kuala Lumpur Composite Index. Holding Period Return method will be used to measure the impact dependent variables to independent variable in this research. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Effect Of Macroeconomic On Stock Return" essay for you Create order Secondary data will be used for this research paper, which are about 50 companies in industrial product sectors components that listed in Kuala Lumpur Composite Index; will be acknowledged as the sample for the previous year period from 2005 until 2009 to measure the performance of the sector in economic condition during the period. It is expected that during the period, the industrial sectorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance that listed in Bursa Malaysia maybe will be affected by the economic condition during the period which will give impact on their stock return. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.0 INTRODUCTION Macroeconomic and stock prices are difficult to predict most of the times. These changes it appears that reflect the shifting demand for that stock or changing facts that it because of expectations of a companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s profitability or some of government policy that effect on stock. Therefore, investors speculate how stock are determined most of them will look for to inexpensive share or expensive share with low price earning. Shares in most large established corporations are listed on organized exchanges like the Bursa Malaysia or Shanghai Stock Exchange. Every time a stock is sold, the exchange records the price at which it changes hands. If, a few seconds or minutes later, another trade takes place, the price at which that trade is made becomes the new market price, and so on. Organized exchanges like the Bursa Malaysia will occasionally suspend trading in a stock if the price is excessively volatile and also must legalize trade according their regulation, if there is a severe difference between supply and demand or if they suspect that insiders are intentionally manipulating a stockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s price. But in ordinary circumstances, nobody is on purpose to control price. The market price of a stock is basically the price at which a keen buyer and seller agree to trade. Price is volatile when the enormous volumes of stock traders are made awake of professional traders who buy and sell shares each and every one day long. Since these traders do not grab stocks over the long pull, they are not terribly interested in such long-term considerations as a companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s profitability or the value of its assets. Or rather, they are interested in such factors mostly trusty as news that would affect a companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s long-term prospects might cause other traders to buy the stock, causing its price to raise. If traders believe that others will buy shares, then he/she will buy as well, hoping to sell when the price rises. I f others believe the same thing, then the wave of buying pressure will, in fact, cause the price to rise. This trend will continue forever. When we look back to the famous economist John Maynard Keynes which has revealed the economic principle had compared the stock market to a competition then popular in British tabloids, in which rival had to look at photos and choose the faces that other contestants would choose as the prettiest. Each contestant had to look for photos à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“likeliest to catch the imagination of the other competitors, all of whom be looking at the difficulty from the same point of observation.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? similarly, stock traders try to speculation which stocks other traders will buy. The successful trader is the one who anticipates and outfoxes the market, buying prior to a stockà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s price rises and selling before it falls. 1.0.1 Screening criteria of KLCI Investor can only invest in stocks through a stock exchange, an organized marketplace where stocks are bought and sold under strict rules, regulations and guidelines. KLCI has over 30 listed companies offering a wide range of investment choices to local and global investors. Companies are either listed on Bursa Malaysia Securities Main Market or ACE Market. The Stock Market was created by companies wishing to raise capital for their business. When someone says they have a listed company they indicate listed on Bursa Malaysia. All companies need cash to take advantage of growth opportunities. Many start-up companies however find themselves short of capital to fund expansion. One way to acquire this cash is to publicly float the company. This involves selling part of the company to private individual and institutional investors who are then able to freely exchange these stocks on an open market Most huge matter regarding to the criteriaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s are, high market capitali zation on stock itself, it reflects how much share have been issues and its price per share. Blue chip company is resistance to weak market and it has permanently growth for example nestle it has stable growth in term of profit and cash flow. 1.0.2 History of stock Market The Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange which was incorporated on December 14, 1976 as a company limited by guarantee took over the operations of KLSEB in the same year. The Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange Berhad was demutualized pursuant to the Demutualization Act and converted into a public company limited by shares on January 5, 2007. Upon the conversion, the organization vested and transferred the securities exchange business to a new wholly-owned subsidiary, Bursa Securities, and became an exchange holding company and were renamed Bursa Malaysia Berhad on April 14, 2007. On 18 March 2005, Bursa Malaysia made its first appearance on the Main Board of Bursa Malaysia Securities Berhad. On 6 July 2009, the Composite Index has been replaced by FTSE Bursa Malaysia KLCI index which reflect the top 30 companies in the exchange. On 4 August 2009, the exchange has combined the main board and the second board into a single market which is called the Main Market. Mesdaq is also renamed into ACE market which provides lower listing requirements. 1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY Every time a share in, say, nestle is traded for example, the new price is used to revalue all outstanding shares-just as the value of your home appreciates when the house down the block sells for more than a similar house sold last week. But the value of your home wouldnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t be so high if every house on your block were suddenly put up for sale. Similarly, if all ten billion outstanding shares even a small fraction of them-were put up for sale, they wouldnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t fetch anywhere near the current market price. (Pirie and Smith, 2003) have say that relationships between accounting information, book values and share prices have significant implications for share prices in Singapore. Foreign exchange rate and interest rate risks are important financial and economic factors affecting the value of common stocks. Research by (King and Wadhwani, 1990) found that the volatility transfer hypothesis suggests that random shocks can induce higher volatility in finan cial markets and because of contagion effects which are highest in more volatile markets, investors may look abroad to invest in alternative financial assets. This study was aimed to point out whether the stock price behaviors and macroeconomic variables such as foreign exchange rate and interest rate is reflected in listed company stock return in the KLCI or not. Because one of them is accounting factor and other are economic factor. 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT The problem studied in this research is about the movement of the stock market and selected individual stock prices for investorà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s usage. Caution should also be exercised in interpreting their results as the period of study includes the 2008 financial crises. It is possible that the severity of the crisis has influenced the statistical results. These papers empirically compares and see the share price of the companies before, during and after the recession and it covers only two macroeconomic factor that have give some effect to the stock return. During this period we will see the flow of the price movement in the market by using fifthly (50) listed company in property sector. Previous studies on stock market by Deshmukh et al (1983) banks can affect their exposure to interest rate and foreign exchange rate changes when they act as financial intermediaries for their clients. As such, their role as financial intermediaries can affect the sensitivity of investor a ssets and liabilities to interest rate and foreign exchange rate changes 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTION This research is conducted to inquire: 1.3.1 If there any changes of stock return on listed KLCI industrial company effect of macroeconomic? 1.3.2 If there any changes of stock return on listed KLCI industrial company effect of volatile market share price? 1.3.3 Which investment could offer better stock return to investor if using Holding Period Return? 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES This research is conducted to determine: 1.4.1 Macroeconomic factor have give impact to the stock return. 1.4.2 Changes of share price have give impact to the stock return. 1.4.3 The investment that could offer better performance using Holding Period Return. 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY This research is an observed study upon the macroeconomic factors and changes of stock price that give impact to the stock return of industrial product listed in KLCI. The study is significance for researcher, government and investors. Researchers can be benefit from this study by the information and acknowledge they from the previous to the current and future trend of movement either macroeconomic factors and changes of stock price that give impact to the stock return. As for the government, they can assist in organizing and stabilizing the economy to make the market will always gain some profit to the investors in attract more investment to come to Malaysia. Investors will gain benefit by knowing the current condition of Malaysia stock market as well as the shares before they can invest their pool of money in Malaysia especially in the industrial company. 1.6 SCOPE OF STUDY Macroeconomic and share price is the environment in which all firms operate. The ability to forecast the macroeconomic and share price can translate into spectacular investment performance. Some of the key economic variables are inflation, interest rate and exchange rate. In economics, a recession is a business cycle contraction, a general slowdown in economic activity over a period of time. During recessions, many macroeconomic indicators vary in a similar way. Production as measured by Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employment, investment spending, capacity utilization, household incomes, business profits and inflation all fall during recessions; while bankruptcies and the unemployment rate rise. Recessions are generally believed to be caused by a widespread drop in spending. Governments usually respond to recessions by adopting expansionary macroeconomic policies, such as increasing money supply, increasing government spending and decreasing taxation. High interest rates re duce the present value of future cash flow, thereby reducing the attractiveness of investment opportunities. For these reason, real interest rate are the key determinants of business investment expenditures because sensitive to interest rate affect to interest payment. The foreign exchange market or currency market or Forex is the market where one currency is traded for another. It is one of the largest markets in the world. Some of the participants in this market are simply seeking to exchange a foreign currency for their own, like multinational corporations which must pay wages and other expenses in different nations than they sell products in. However, a large part of the market is made up of currency traders, who speculate on movements in exchange rates, much like others would speculate on movements of stock prices. Currency traders try to take advantage of even small fluctuations in exchange rates. In the foreign exchange market there is little or no inside information. E xchange rate fluctuations are usually caused by actual monetary flows as well as anticipations on global macroeconomic conditions. Significant news is released publicly so, at least in theory, everyone in the world receives the same news at the same time. This study takes place in the subsistence of macroeconomic and changes of stock price in Malaysia as its field is the one to be explored. Moreover 50 listed companies were acknowledged as the sample for the previous five year period. The data of this research will be obtained from DataStream. 1.7 LIMITATION OF STUDY There are several drawbacks in pursuing this research. It includes: 1.7.1 Scope of study The research reference is restricted in the scope of Malaysia due to the field of study. As we know, Malaysia is an emerging country, thus the performance is still not matured compared with the developed countries, like the United States. 1.7.2 Period of the study This study is conducted by using the data from 2005 to 2009. Approximately 50 form 100 companies that listed in Bursa Malaysia, but not all the companiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ data was provided in that certain period. This constraint is affecting the calculation of portfolio performance. The length of the study also affected this study indirectly. This study used to use five years period of time. The result for five years study would be different if this study managed to use the longer period of time. 1.7.3 Secondary data In this study, we used the secondary data gathered from DataStream, Bursa Malaysia and the other articles references. Some of the data were not up to date to be the good references. For example, when we referred to Bursa Malaysia, some of the data is not currently in use and in DataStream; the problem was some of the data was not available (N/A). It became a limitation to the study because we cannot get the accurate result. 1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS 1.8.1 KLCI Kuala Lumpur Composite Index or Bursa Malaysia is place where all sector company list their stock to get capital gain from investor that buy their stock. 1.9 SUMMARY There are many reason why this research been conduct but to know the real effect to the stock return many variable been use to meet the objective. For example interest rate, exchange rate, recession and stock price movement is the variables that have effect to the company or investor stock return. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 INTRODUCTION Macroeconomics is a branch of economics that deals with the performance, structure, behavior and decision-making of the entire economy, be that a national, regional, or the global economy. Along with microeconomics, macroeconomics is one of the two most general fields in economics. Researcher study aggregated indicators such as GDP, unemployment rates, and price indices to understand how the whole economy functions. Macroeconomists develop models that explain the relationship between such factors as national income, output, consumption, unemployment, inflation, savings, investment, international trade and international finance. In contrast, microeconomics is primarily focused on the actions of individual agents, such as firms and consumers, and how their behavior determines prices and quantities in specific markets. 2.1 GENERAL LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1.1 MACROECONOMICS The effect of macroeconomic fundamentals on stock market volatility has generated a lot of interest. Research by Liljeblom and Stenius (1997) find that it is argued that if the value of corporate equity on the whole depends on the health of the economy, then uncertainty in macroeconomic conditions would affect volatility in stock returns assuming consistent discount rates. Studies have also shown that stock market volatility is driven by uncertainty in macroeconomic fundamentals Fama (1981, 1990), Fama and French (1989) and Chen et al. (1986). It is argued that there is an inverse relationship between interest rates and stock returns. Thorbecke (1997) and Smal and de Jager (2001) observe that a reduction in interest rates induces an injection of liquidity into the economy. This extra liquidity could be channeled to the stock market, driving up the demand and prices of stocks. Patelis (1997) notes that interest rate changes are helpful in predicting stock market returns over a lo ng period. Thus, there is evidence to conclude that interest rate policies should also target stock market price movements. Goodfriend (2003) also notes that, since there is no stable correlation between stock-price returns and short-term interest rates, it would be difficult for interest rates to target stock-price changes appropriately. Bernanke and Kuttner (2003) also note that stock markets do not react much to interest rate changes. Throughout the years, the global economy has been transformed from a simplified financial architecture to a complex intertwined set of financial systems. From the Bretton Woods system to the advent of flexible exchange rate systems in 1973 until the present days, the environment of international markets had experienced substantial changes in the form of excessive variability in exchange rates, greater capital mobility and punctuated by a series of financial crises worldwide in recent years. Meese (1990) who studied the currency fluctuations in th e post-Bretton Woods era found that the changes of macroeconomic variables alone could not explain major currencies movements. MacDonald and Taylor (1994) however noticed relationships between macroeconomic variables and exchange rate. A recent study by Rapach and Wohar (2002) meanwhile produced mixed results for the monetary model of exchange rate determination. In December, 2007 economic recession that began in the United States spread much of the industrialized world, and has caused a uncertainty of economic activity. This global recession has been taking place in an economic environment characterized by various imbalances and was sparked by the outbreak of the financial crisis of 2007à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"2009. However, Mitchell and Netter (1989) argue that the three-day decline preceding the crash was a large enough decline that it became the fundamental news and that shook the market. The theoretical model of Jacklin et al. (1992) (among others) shows how a surprise significant drop in the market could have provided information to the market that would directly lead to a crash. Among all macroeconomic factor stock price movement is also effect by changes in economic environments. CRR (1986) results are tested to see whether the factors priced in the US market are applicable in Turkey stock market, with adding new variable unemployment rate, because we expected a relation with the stock returns. 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Four factors are selected to test the relationships of these factors and stock return. The factors are recession, interest rate, exchange rate and stock price movement. 2.2.1 Recession Recession is one of the macroeconomic factors that effect to the listed company stock return in KLCI. Some of the researcher say that recession have give negative impact to stock return but some researcher found that recession is no relation with stock price. CRR (1986) shown that the tested macroeconomic variables do not affect the share price in the UK stock market. 2.2.2 Exchange Rate. Exchange rate is most been use by investor to do transaction to buy stock in market, because of that exchange rate is consider one of the factors that effect to the stock return. Movements of exchange rate are always a concern for various parties. In international currency markets, exchange rate plays a significant role and the variability of exchange rate, whichever way it sways, tends to give a significant impact on the economy. 2.2.3 Interest Rate. Interest rate also one of the factor that give impact to the stock return because some researcher say that interest rate give negative impact to the stock return. Anthony Kyereboah-Coleman and Kwame F. Agyire-Tettey (2008) mention that there negative real interest rates for extended period. 2.2.4 Stock Price Movement. Stock price move is most related to the stock return because every time changes in stock price effect to the outcome of stock return for investor investment but some of the researcher say that there is no effect on stock return. For example Martinez and Rubio (1989) tested the Spanish market return and they found that there were no significant pricing relationship between stock returns and the macroeconomic variables. 2.3 SUMMARY Literature review is the part where it shows where it show whether the variable will be strongly acceptance or not. From the previous study that has been done it has shown that, most of the variable has its own importance not only in affecting some issue but also in solving it. This literature reviews shows the effect of this study on the stock return as the dependent. It also has many researches done with the difference result. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY AND DATA 3.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter discusses the research methodology used in the study. Methodology is one the important method that had been use to test the hypothesis on this study in order to get the finding at the end of the study. Research design and research methodology is most of the important part for this study since it provide a lot of useful information on how to get the data, how to conduct the survey and provide additional information in order to get better result and finding for this study. This chapter explains how the data for conduct the study is collected and carried out. It also explain on the method that is going to be use to get the finding at the end of the study. It also focus on the data sources, sample involved in the study and the methodology to be use in this study. In this study the variables that had been used was economic recession, exchange rate, interest rate and stock price which collected on the monthly basis for the period of 5 years ended in December 2005 until De cember 2009. This study consists of 50-industrial product firm and using time series period from 2005 to 2009. Focus for this study was more on the Regression Model analysis to test the finding. Since this study was investigate and identify the relationship between macroeconomic and stock price movement to profitability so using the regression data analysis model had done it for the past 5 years.. There are several key items such as data collection method, sampling frame, sources of data, variables and measurement, research design, theoretical framework, hypothesis statement, data analysis, and treatment which will clarify in detail in this chapter. 3.1 DATA COLLECTION The price indices at monthly frequency are collected for sectors in Bursa Malaysia: industrial product sector. All the closing prices of these sector indices sourced from the secondary data from Thomson Financial DataStream over five-year period from year 2005 to year 2009 (5 years). Meanwhile, for the independent variables of recession rate, exchange rate, interest rate and stock price will be extracted from Thomson Financial DataStream and Bank Negara Malaysia official release. 3.2 SAMPLING FRAME To secure an acceptable result, this study decided to use 50 samples out of all companies that went public and were listed on the second board within year 2005 to 2009. The decision to use this sample was due to the inability to collect more data due to the time constrain during research. Furthermore, this study wants to see the stock return for investor in industrial product sector. And at the same time, it also wants to observe the relationship between recession rate, exchange rate, interest rate and stock price. 3.3 SOURCES OF DATA The selected 50 stock sample being chose from the main board of BM KLCI .The data are collected on monthly actual stock price was collected from the Thomson Financial DataStream, which is provided the information about the companiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ financial situations over years. Each stock is already being issued from the companies issued until today. These samples were represented by 50 companies from the industrial product sector. 3.4 VARIABLES AND MEASUREMENT There are two types variables has been used in this study there are; the dependent and the independent variables. 3.4.1 Dependent Variables The dependent variable for this study is stock return of each company industrial product sector. 3.4.2 Independent Variables The independent variables will be measured by recession rate, exchange rate, interest rate and stock price. 3.5 RESEARCH DESIGN This research is designed to see the relationship between dependent variable with independent variables. In this study, it analysis in hypotheses testing that will explain the certain significant correlations between KLIBOR and Treasury Bills rates and the stock performance 3.5.1 Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is to determine the relationship between all the dependent and independent variable. By using descriptive study can know relationship between both of variable. Descriptive study will be able to describe the characteristics of the variable of the situation. By using data from DataStream would be able to compare monthly return for each of the companies. Besides that, this study also can help investor to make decision making and offer the idea for future problem and research. 3.5.2 Types of Investigation The study involved the correlation study types of investigation. The study involves determining the important variable associated with the situation. The important variable is between the recession rate, exchange rate, interest rate and stock price. Correlation studies done in the study are called field studies. This studies will conducted to establish cause and effect to the stock return using the same measurement in the market are called field experiments. The experiment done to establish the cause and affect of the studies so that can make corrective action to make any decision in the investment. 3.5.3 Unit of Analysis In this study, the unit of analysis is group of company and also industry. The group of company that involve fifthly (50) of the properties companies that has been selected in the main board of BM KLCI. The companies selected depend on the year of the companies is establish. The industry that has been selected is recession rate, exchange rate, interest rate and stock price will be compare with the return of each companies return during 5 years. 3.5.4 Time Horizon This study will be use cross-sectional studies to make the research. A study will be done with the monthly data are gathered over five years (5) from year 2005 to 2009, in order to get the result about these studies. 3.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Research studies indicate that relationship between KLIBOR and Treasury Bills rates and stock performance. Dependent variable: Effect of company Stock Return Independent variables: Recession rate, Exchange rate, Interest rate and Stock Price Movement. Figure 1: Schematic Diagram (Relationship Diagram) Independent Dependent Company Stock return listed in KLCI Stock price movement Interest rate Exchange rate Recession rate According to the schematic diagram above, it can be explaining relationship between stock return with Recession rate, Exchange rate, Interest rate and Stock Price Movement. 3.7 DATA ANALYSIS AND TREATMENT Multiple Linear Regression Model are the statistical tools that been use in this study. This model analysis examine about simultaneous effect between Recession rate, Exchange rate, Interest rate and Stock Price Movement (independent variable) Stock Return (dependent variable) which variable give biggest effect on the dependent variable. Where; Y = Dependent variable which represent Actual Stock Performance = The constant number of equation = Coefficient Beta value = Independent variable which represent Recession rate = Independent variable which represent Exchange rate = Independent variable which represent Interest rate = Error r = (EV à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" BV) + DIV X 100 BVStock price movement will be measure in Holding Period Return to determine the effect on stock return Where; r = Represent Rate of return EV = Represent Ending Value or end of stock price BV = Represent Beginning Value or beginning of stock price DIV = Represent income or dividend of company 3.8 HYPOTHESIS STATEMENT Some changes will affect the each stock return to the companies. By changing the stock price will affect the return to the companies its self its might be go higher or lower than what it expected will be. To analysis and to test whether this is applicable to the Malaysian Stock Market, the hypothesis has been developing. Hypothesis 1 H0 = Company stock return in industrial product sector outperform than KLCI H1 = Company stock return in industrial product sector underperform than KLCI Hypothesis 2 H0 = Macroeconomic factor does has significant impact in stock return of each company in industrial product sector in KLCI H1 = Macroeconomic factor does not has significant impact in stock return of each industrial product sector in KLCI Hypothesis 3 H0 = Stock price movement does has significant impact in stock return of each industrial product sector in KLCI H1 = Stock price movement does not has significant impact in stock return of each industrial produc t sector in KLCI SUMMARY This study will be measure according the objective that has been established in earlier chapter. This research can be use to help investors to make the investment decision. Ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s because this studies focuses on the data from year 2005 until year2009, it will give better overview of each of the properties company in order to take any corrective action in facing the problem and also overcoming the problem in the current situation to make an investment decision.

The Effects of War on the Environment

The natural environment has been a strategic element of war since the first rock was thrown by the first cave dweller. The armies of ancient Rome and Assyria, to ensure the total capitulation of their enemies, reportedly sowed salt into the cropland of their foes, making the soil useless for farming—an early use of military herbicide, and one of the most devastating environmental effects of war. But history also provides lessons in eco-sensitive warfare. The Bible, in Deuteronomy 20:19, stays the hand of the warrior to minimize wars impact on nature and men alike: When you besiege a city a long time, to make war against it in order to capture it, you shall not destroy its trees by swinging an axe against them; for you may eat from them, and you shall not cut them down. For is the tree of the field a man, that it should be besieged by you? War and the Environment: Weve Been Lucky so Far War is waged differently today, of course, and has widespread environmental impacts that last far longer. The technology has changed, and the potential effects of the technology are very different, says Carl Bruch, co-director of international programs at the Environmental Law Institute in Washington, D.C. Bruch, who is also the co-author of The Environmental Consequences of War: Legal, Economic, and Scientific Perspectives, notes that modern chemical, biological, and nuclear warfare has the potential to wreak unprecedented environmental havoc that, fortunately, we havent seen—yet. This is a great threat, Bruch says. But in some cases, precision weapons and other technological advances can shield the environment by targeting key facilities, leaving other areas relatively unscathed. You could make the argument that these weapons have the ability to minimize collateral damage, says Geoffrey Dabelko, director of the Environmental Change and Security Program at the Woodrow Wilson Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C. Its Local: The Impact of War Today Warfare today also occurs infrequently between independent nations; more often, armed conflict breaks out between rival factions within a nation. These localized civil wars, according to Bruch, are usually beyond the reach of international treaties and bodies of law. Internal conflict is viewed as a matter of sovereignty—an internal matter, he says. As a result, environmental damage, like human rights violations, occurs unchecked by outside organizations. Though skirmishes, armed conflicts, and open warfare vary tremendously by region and by weapons used, the effects of war on the environment usually involve the following broad categories. Habitat Destruction and Refugees Perhaps the most famous example of habitat devastation occurred during the Vietnam War  when U.S. forces sprayed herbicides like Agent Orange on the forests and mangrove swamps that provided cover to guerrilla soldiers. An estimated 20 million gallons of herbicide were used, decimating about 4.5 million acres in the countryside. Some regions are not expected to recover for several decades. Additionally, when warfare causes the mass movement of people, the resulting impacts on the environment can be catastrophic. Widespread deforestation, unchecked hunting, soil erosion, and contamination of land and water by human waste occur when thousands of humans are forced to settle in a new area. During the Rwandan conflict in 1994, much of that countrys Akagera National Park was opened to refugees; as a result of this refugee influx, local populations of animals like the roan antelope and the eland became extinct. Invasive Species Military ships, cargo airplanes, and trucks often carry more than soldiers and munitions; non-native plants and animals can also ride along, invading new areas and wiping out native species in the process. Laysan Island in the Pacific Ocean was once home to a number of rare plants and animals, but troop movements during and after World War II introduced rats that nearly wiped out the Laysan finch and the Laysan rail, as well as bringing in sandbur, an invasive plant that crowds out the native bunchgrass that local birds depend on for habitat. Infrastructure Collapse Among the first and most vulnerable targets of attack in a military campaign are the enemys roads, bridges, utilities, and other infrastructure. While these dont form part of the natural environment, the destruction of wastewater treatment plants, for example, severely degrades regional water quality. During the 1990s fighting in Croatia, chemical manufacturing plants were bombed; because treatment facilities for chemical spills werent functioning, toxins flowed downstream unchecked until the conflict ended. Increased Production Even in regions not directly affected by warfare, increased production in manufacturing, agriculture, and other industries that support a war effort can wreak havoc on the natural environment. During World War I, former wilderness areas of the United States came under cultivation for wheat, cotton, and other crops, while vast stands of timber were clear-cut to meet wartime demand for wood products. Timber in Liberia, oil in Sudan, and diamonds in Sierra Leone are all exploited by military factions. These provide a revenue stream that is used to buy weapons, says Bruch. Scorched Earth Practices, Hunting, and Poaching The destruction of your own homeland is a time-honored, albeit tragic, wartime custom. The term scorched earth originally applied to the burning of crops and buildings that might feed and shelter the enemy, but its now applied to any environmentally destructive strategy. To thwart invading Japanese troops during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), Chinese authorities dynamited a dike on the Yellow River, drowning thousands of Japanese soldiers—and thousands of Chinese peasants—while also flooding millions of square miles of land. Similarly, if an army marches on its stomach, as the saying goes, then feeding an army often requires hunting local animals, especially larger mammals that often have lower rates of reproduction. In the ongoing war in Sudan, poachers seeking meat for soldiers and civilians have had a tragic effect on bush animal populations in Garamba National Park, just across the border in the Democratic Republic of Congo. At one point, the number of elephants shrunk from 22,000 to 5,000, and there were only 15 white rhinos left alive. Biological, Chemical, and Nuclear Weapons The production, testing, transport, and use of these advanced weapons is perhaps the single most destructive effects of war on the environment. Though their use has been strictly limited since the bombing of Japan by the U.S. military at the end of World War II, military analysts have grave concerns about the proliferation of nuclear material and chemical and biological weaponry. Weve been very fortunate that we have not seen the devastation that we might see, says Bruch. Researchers point to the use of depleted uranium (DU) as one particularly dangerous military trend. DU is a byproduct of the uranium-enrichment process. Almost twice as dense as lead, its valued in weapons for its ability to penetrate tank armor and other defenses. An estimated 320 tons of DU were used in the Gulf War in 1991; in addition to soil contamination, experts are concerned that soldiers and civilians may have been exposed to dangerous levels of the compound. How Environmental Problems Lead to War While the effects of war on the environment may be obvious, whats less clear are the ways that environmental damage itself leads to conflict. Factions in resource-poor countries like those in Africa, the Mideast, and Southeast Asia have historically used military force for material gain; they have few other options. Bruch explains that once armed conflict begins, soldiers and populations under siege must find immediate sources of food, water, and shelter, so theyre forced to adapt their thinking to short-term solutions, not long-term sustainability. This short-term desperation leads to a vicious cycle of conflict, followed by people who meet their immediate needs in unsustainable ways, bringing deprivation and disillusionment, which then leads to more conflict. One of the chief challenges is to break that cycle, Bruch says. Can Warfare Protect Nature? It seems counterintuitive, but some have argued that military conflicts often end up preserving the natural environment. Its one of the findings thats utterly contrary to expectations, says Jurgen Brauer, Ph.D., professor of economics at Augusta State University in Augusta, Georgia. The most preserved area in all of Korea is the demilitarized zone because you have the exclusion of human activity, he says. Other researchers have noted that despite the massive amounts of herbicide use during the Vietnam War, more forests have been lost in that country since the war ended than during it, due to peacetime commerce and Vietnams quest for prosperity. The coal-black skies caused by the Kuwaiti oil fires in 1991 provided dramatic visual evidence of war-related environmental damage. However, these oil fires burned in one month roughly the amount of oil burned by the United States in a single day. Peace can be damaging, too, says Dabelko. You have some of these ironic twists. But experts are quick to emphasize that this is not an argument in favor of armed conflict. War is not good for the environment, adds Brauer, who is also an author of War and Nature: The Environmental Consequences of War in a Globalized World. And Bruch notes that warfare only delays the environmental damage of peaceful human activity and commerce. It may provide a respite, but the long-term effects of war arent that different from what happens under commercial development, he says. Winning the Peace As military planning evolves, it becomes apparent that the environment now plays a greater role in successful combat, especially after an armed conflict ends. At the end of the day, if youre trying to occupy an area, you have a strong incentive not to ruin it, Dabelko says. The aforementioned biblical quote from Deuteronomy about preserving trees is, perhaps, good advice for the ages. And some warriors are learning that theres more to be gained from preserving the environment than in destroying it. In war-torn Mozambique, former military combatants have been hired to work together as park rangers protecting the wildlife and natural habitats that they once sought to destroy. That built bridges between the military and the park service. It has worked, Bruch says. Natural resources can be very important in providing jobs and opportunities in post-conflict societies.

Inequalities within the Criminal Justice System - 2475 Words

This essay will crucially consider whether there is inequalities within the criminal justice system between mothers and fathers, this will analyses a lot of statistics about males and females within prison with ratios of mothers in prison and that is compared to fathers, also compare between the crime and relations to the crime to show a clear cut understanding if there is or isn’t inequalities. The essay will discuss criminological theories linking in to how crime is seen in society the differences of each gender having committed the same crime the theories that will be used is, feminist theory which will focus on how mothers end up in prison and also how they are treated differently to fathers within the criminal justice system. The†¦show more content†¦(Malloch McIvor, 2012, p. 136). Carrying out community work would subsequently minimise the impact that it would have on the family. (Ministery of Justice, 2008). This would suggest that women hostels and community work has developed over the years taking into consideration how this could help children that would have been victims if mothers were sent to prison and also having successful rates on non-reoffending due to hostels means that hostels for probation and rehabilitation are working for mothers as they was not taken away from their children however men are more likely to not finish community work (Prison Reform Trust, 2010). Mothers are more than happy to be sent to a rehabilitation centre then prison as this would be seen as a easy escape from prison but also being able to still stay at home whilst attending rehabilitation centres, with community work offered to convicted offenders too it is proved that women finish community work more than males and are able to cope with the work as they see a means of not going to prison. Women are a target to pressure and over half of women within the criminal justice system have suffered from ‘domestic violence, compared with a quarter of men’ and with a quarter of having ‘experienced sexual abuse in comparison to just under a tenth of male prisoners’. (Corston, 2007). Mothers feel more pain of imprisonment then fathers/males this is because the role as a mother can be as primary carers. WorryShow MoreRelatedGender Inequality Within The Criminal Justice System974 Words   |  4 PagesThere are many disparities within the criminal justice system that can be recognized. One of the most commonly researched disparities is with race and ethnicity. However, there is another disparity that, while just as important, may be less recognized. This disparity is gender. For many years, criminologists have developed theories as to why females commit crime dating back to 1895. One more recent theory of crime is Sampson and Laub’s life course theory. 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The poor do not have the luxury of retaining adequate representation. Inequalities do not end with once a guilty verdict is delivered. They continue on through the penalty phase as lower class citizens are processed through the penal system. The incarceration rates of those in the lower socioeconomic class have increased significantly over recent years. Most of the increase in attributed to the war onRead MoreCriminology And Sociology : Criminology1296 Words   |  6 Pagesthey can examine anything from the smallest interactions between everyday people to vastly complex international or multinational relationships. Within this they attempt to understand the social processes; that is why humans think and behave in a certain way. Concepts and Theories of Criminology and Sociology: The generalisability problem is a concept within feminist criminology that adds women to male knowledge on crime, thereby the findings on men are generalised to women. 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Ethical Dilemma in IT Profession for Figures - myassignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theEthical Dilemma in IT Profession for Facts and Figures. Answer: The doing ethics technique (DET) is a modus operandi which facilitates an examination of diverse moral problems in changing circumstances. Although it does not pledge that the final consequence would be the best resolution, but it positively aids the individual to ponder in a principled way. So as to ensure that the DET is applied productively, eight questions in the chronology mentioned should be responded to and they are , What is happening, the details and the facts and figures, the various ethical and non-ethical issues, who is effected, ethical problems found out along with the impact, the resolution to embark upon the same, various accessible alternatives and which one is best with rationales (Simpson et al 2003). The video makes it very evident that the project manager in the particular case is acting in an unethical way and thereby putting extraordinary pressure on the project developer by demanding from him to deliver the software within a very short duration and that too without testing the same and without the encryption as well. As per ICT i.e. information and communication technology ethics, the developer of any IT software should ensure that while doing so, he/she is adhering to all the ethical issues. However, the said case makes it clear that the in order to grab further contract from the company, the manager surrenders himself to greed and lust, hence pressurizing the developer of the program to deliver ahead of time as is desired by the company (Raicu, 2016). Hence the said action is unethical on the part of the project manager simply because releasing of any software program wherein encryption and security is absent would basically mean risking the crucial and critical data of mil lions of people. The end result of such an act is very alarming and can lead to various damaging effects as well. Releasing of a software much before time, in an incomplete state without encryption and testing would man risking the critical data of millions of users in the hands of the potenti0l cyber attackers. Along with the same, the said act would also lead to impacting the goodwill of both the organizations i.e. the company who is demanding an early delivery as well as the project management company who is delivering the said software. The importance of encryption cannot be ignored as it is the only way via which one can secure its data. Taking such a big peril is an immoral act of greater substance, only because it wants to grab further contracts, is basically playing with the personal lives of many who would be using the same. Hence the said launch can cause theft of crucial data, misutilization of the said stolen data, loss of faith and goodwill and also compromising on the secrecy (Schneier, 2016). Last but not the least, ICT professionals cannot let go of the fact that their actions would have an irreversible impact on the employees, organization as a whole and all those who would be using the said software. Various theories have been put forward by eminent theorists with regards such moral issues associated with ICT. To begin with, first is the ethics of conscience, in which one decided on his own as to what is correct and what is not. As regards the said case study, the project developer and the project manager were not seen standing at the same level simply because the former is of the opinion that it is unethical on the part of his profession to launch any software without proper testing and encryption (Malaj, 2015). The only reason for the said difference in opinion was the conscience which was stopping the project developer from performing such an unethical act. Another theory which counts in this scenario is that of ethical egoism which was showing in the mannerism of the project manager when he was seen pressurising the project developer. As per the said theory, a person would always prefer to act in a manner which would be best suited for satisfying his or her personal interest. Thereby here the project manager in order to grab more work from the organization, hence satisfying his ethical egoism was wanting the project developer to act in an immoral manner (Charlesworth 2009). Unfortunately, if in future any mishaps occur then the said theory would not succeed and the project manager would realise and come to terms to the fact that the project developer was right and his stand was incorrect. Hence these ethical theories put forward by the various ICT professionals makes it very evident that all the professionals should cater to delivering best possible product i.e. it should be protected against all the flaws and that all safeguards should be installed from the beginning. This would be best from the perspective of both the organizations. The particular video being discussed about, makes it very evident that the best solution to the said issue would be that the project developer should make all efforts to complete the project before time by running, testing and ensuring encryption programming as well by employing more professionals or if the same is not possible then the developer should ensure that he personally informs the company about the consequences of such an early launch (Kerstein, 2005). The investors should be made aware of such an event in advance and even after the same, if they insist on the launch, then a written consent should be taken so that the developer is safeguarded. The importance of the encryption should be highlighted and informed in written. The project developer should not surrender itself to the pressure of the manager as it is unethical and also the same is not as per his will. As per the professional ethics, an individual should act in a moral way and also if forced to behave in an unacceptable manner, then he should deny for the same (Lurie Mark, 2015). Thereby, on going through the said video in detail, the most apt way out would be either the project developer should put down his papers or make a written announcement to the management of the company about the issues that may occur due to the same. Thus it is understood that one of the best solution is to emphasize the issue in the best possible manner. The investors will definitely would not want to agree to something that may cause their goodwill to deteriorate as this would have an alarming impact on their income as well. Hence on a concluding note, one can say that the project manager is behaving in an unethical manner and is ignoring the risk to which many innocent individuals would be exposed to. Satisfaction of ones own interest and greed at the cost of the public is unethical. There are high chances that the project manager would have hidden the risks involved in the early launch and hence the same should be highlighted by the project developer so that he secures all the risky ends. Hence, installation of a technology and not paying heed to these vital issues which would be against ethics is not acceptable out of an ICT professional. References https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5M7ohdZ6qA Charlesworth,M. (2009). Ethical theories and Computer Ethics. Retrieved from https://www.igi-global.com/chapter/ethical-theories-computer-ethics/21580 Kerstein,P. (2005). Ethical issues for Security Professionals. Retrieved from https://www.csoonline.com/article/2118391/data-protection/ethical-issues-for-security-professionals.html Lurie,Y. Mark,S. (2015). Professional Ethics of Software Engineers : An Ethical Framework. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/277817334_Professional_Ethics_of_Software_Engineers_An_Ethical_Framework Malaj,J. (2015). Ethical Codes- vital for ICT Professionals and businesses. Retrieved from https://silvaetechnologies.eu/blg/12/ethical-codes--vital-for-ict-professionals-and-businesses Raicu,I. (2016). Ethical Questions About Encryption. Retrieved from https://www.scu.edu/ethics/focus-areas/technology-ethics/resources/ethical-questions-about-encryption/ Schneier,B. (2016). The Importance of Strong Encryption to Securtiy. Retrieved from https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2016/02/the_importance_.html Simpson, C. R., Nevile, L., Burmeister, O. K. (2003). Doing ethics: A universal technique in an accessibility context. Australian Journal of Information Systems, 10(2), 127-133.